This spectacular theater was built during the Roman period in the Decapolis city of Beth Shean, known also by its Greek name, Scythopolis. It was more than 360 feet in diameter and seated over 7,000 people. As seen here, one tier of seats remains. The black basalt foundations of the second tier are still visible, but the foundations of the third tier are gone.

The Decapolis region, largely Gentile and pagan, was governed by Rome, not by the Herods. Jesus frequently visited these 10 city-states, where he attracted many followers. His use of "hypocrite" as a descriptive term would have been clear to the people of this region, who attended theaters like this one.

Herods' love of Hellenistic culture and his desire to introduce it to the Jewish nation is illustrated clearly by the theater at Caesarea. Apparently, this structure was built outside the city because its obscene and bawdy performances may have created an offense among religious Jews.The theater seen here has been reconstructed for use in modern times and shows the splendor and size of the theaters in the Roman world. In Herod's day, it seated approximately 4,000 spectators on stone benches similar to the reconstructed ones shown here.

The floor of the orchestra (the semicircular space in front of the stage where the important people sat in Roman times) was colorfully painted stone in Herod's time and later paved with marble.

The front of the stage (orchestra wall) was painted stone imitating marble. There are six wedges of seats. The square place for the governor's seat can be seen midway in the center wedge.

The Bible records the death of Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:19-23), which Josephus recorded taking place in the theater. It is also possible that Paul was interrogated here by Felix (who was married to Drusilla, Herod the Great's granddaughter) and Festus, as well as Agrippa II and Berenice, his sister.

This theater illustrated the glory of the Hellenistic lifestyle. It was seductive and overwhelming to the Jewish people. It was resisted by the religious community. An ancient rabbi named Yizak is quoted in Megilla, a collection of Jewish sayings, as believing that Caesarea and Jerusalem could not prosper at the same time. Either one or the other would be in ruins. This was his way of teaching that the values represented by Caesarea (and its theater) were antithetical to those of Jerusalem (and the Temple).

Followers of Jesus today would do well to remember the rabbi's words as they seek to hold the values of Jesus that conflict with the Hellenism of today-secular humanism. How do we compromise our values with the secular values of our culture? How do we affect our culture as we participate in it but resist its effect on us?

In the world of the early believers, the theater was a significant institution for communicating the Hellenistic view of the world. Every major city in the Roman world had a theater, and the theater in Ephesus was spectacular. The Greek king Lysimachus originally built the theater in Ephesus during the third century BC. Emperor Claudias (AD 41-54) enlarged it, and Emperor Nero (AD 54-68) continued renovations.

The ruins remaining demonstrate how impressive the theater in Ephesus was. It had three tiers of seats and could hold an estimated twenty-five thousand people. The stage was 130 feet wide and 80 feet deep. Imagine how the theater must have roared when thousands of devotees of the goddess Artemis became angry at Paul and shouted praises to their goddess for two hours!

Although the stage building is mostly gone, it's interesting to note that the audience in Ephesus preferred no backdrop to the stage. They wanted to see life in the city beyond. The drama that took place on the stage portrayed the way the Ephesians viewed themselves; it was a reflection of their lives. In another sense, the drama portrayed the goal for which the culture was striving-who the people wanted to be. So, the people preferred to look beyond the stage to what was happening in their community.

Theaters such as the one in Ephesus were used for both entertainment and religious festivals. Regular plays, dramas (often portraying the myths of the gods), comedies, and satires typically began with sacrifices to Dionysus (the god of theater) and other deities in order to dedicate the presentation to the gods.

During a festival honoring a particular god or goddess, a procession would begin at the god's temple and parade through Ephesus. Led by priests, priestesses, and cult members, the celebrants and pilgrims would carry the symbols and statues of their deity. Passerby would honor the god with gifts or by placing incense on altars placed along the route. The procession typically ended at the theater, where the statues were placed on pedestals and worshiped. People then gave speeches, sacrificed animals, and offered the meat on altars in the stage area. Faithful devotees would then eat the roasted or boiled meat, symbolizing their communion with the deity.

Thus, it became difficult, if not impossible, for Christians in Ephesus to frequent the theater. They would not participate in sacrifices before dramatic presentations, were offended by stories of gods that the human imagination had created, and refused to eat meat sacrificed to gods that represented demonic powers. No doubt the citizens of Ephesus hated the Christians-not so much for their beliefs but for their refusal to compromise and honor the deities that other people worshiped. As emperor worship became more prevalent, Christians risked their lives to avoid such celebrations.

The first-century theater of Hierapolis, one of the best-preserved theaters in Asia, clearly demonstrates the city's sophistication at the time Epaphras founded a church there. The carvings below the stage, which was twelve feet high, are in remarkable condition. They depict methodology of Apollo and Artemis and clearly show the connection between the theater and the worship of pagan gods. This particular theater had seating for seventeen thousand spectators, and in the center of the seating area was a "royal box" from which dignitaries watched events.

The Greeks and Romans considered the theater to be more than entertainment. It displayed the ideals of the Hellenistic culture, communicating to people "This is who we are, and this is who we should become." That's why Greek theaters such as this one were built so that the audience could see the actors on the stage against the backdrop of their communities.

For Christians of that day, the theater created a dilemma. There was nothing inherently sinful about drama, nor were all the presentations there an insult to godly values. But as an institution, the theater presented a seductive argument for the pagan lifestyle. The plays were dedicated to the gods before they began and were used to shape the values and beliefs of those who aspired to be all that a Greek or Roman should be.

This view of Jerusalem is from the southwest, looking northeast over the Upper City. In the foreground is the Upper City on the Western Hill. Here the wealthy, Hellenistic citizens of Jerusalem lived, including the Sadducees. The section of the city to the right of the picture is the Essene Quarter. Apparently, the Upper Room was in or near this area.

Tradition holds that the mansion on the far right just to the left of the monument was that of Caiaphas, the high priest who plotted against Jesus. Regardless of who it belonged to, this mansion is typical of those owned by priests who had become wealthy from the Temple economy. Jesus was questioned in a place like this, and Peter denied him here.

In the foreground of the photo, inside the wall with the towers, is the palace of Herod. A large, beautiful tower just beyond the palace is called Mariamne, named after the beloved wife Herod executed. It is likely that the wise men came to this palace, looking for the King of the Jews. Jesus may have faced Herod Antipas (and possibly Pilate) in this place.

Beyond the Upper City is the Temple Mount.

In the Upper City, the theater (semicircular structure) overlooks the Lower City. The palace of the Hasmoneans is near the Temple in the Upper City. This palace is another possible location of Jesus' trial.

The flat, fertile Valley of Jezreel was the breadbasket of ancient Israel. It is important strategically because the international trade route Via Maris crossed the valley just below the altar and continued through the mountain pass guarded by the city of Megiddo. Because of this pass, the city and valley were probably the most important areas in Israel. In fact, the entire world could be influenced from this place because international trade was controlled here. Many bloody battles were fought in this valley as different empires tried to gain control of it.The writer of the book of Revelation described the battle between the forces of God and those of Satan that will characterize the end of time. In typical Hebrew fashion, he located the battle at Armageddon, which stands for Har Megeddon ("the mountain of Megiddo").

The significance of this site in Hebrew history makes it clear that the battle will be for control of the world. Some Christians believe an actual battle will take place here, while others think a symbolic battle will rage (and is already raging) around the world between those who are faithful to the one true God and those who are not. Whatever you believe, the valley seen in this picture is a symbol of the final battle and the victory that Jesus will have over Satan's legions.

As you face the evil around you, never be so focused on it (the altar and what it represents) that you do not look beyond it, to the valley (Armageddon) and what it represents (Christ's ultimate victory over Satan).

At the bottom of the vertical shaft, the workers of Megiddo dug a horizontal tunnel nearly 220 feet long, to the cave where the spring was located.

Apparently, one crew began in the cave and another one at the bottom of the shaft. The chisel marks in the walls, still visible today, indicate that the workers came from either end to meet in the middle. How they knew the exact direction to dig, and the depth at which to begin, is unknown. But when they finished, they had accomplished one of the engineering wonders of the world.

The cave was sealed from the outside, securing Megiddo's water supply from enemy attack. The city now had the convenience of a freshwater source inside its walls. Every day the women descended the shaft and walked through the horizontal tunnel to the spring. Though the tunnel shown here has electric lights and a modern walk for visitors, the people of Megiddo walked through it in near darkness. Later the tunnel was deepened so that the water flowed to the base of the vertical shaft, where water could be drawn from above.

The shaft and tunnel system of Megiddo is one of the largest and most famous of the great water systems of biblical times.

This photograph is taken from the top of the Herodion looking east towards the wilderness. It is striking how the farms seen in the foreground end where the wilderness begins. Going to the wilderness was a short walk for the people of the Bible. Visitors to Israel are often startled at how small the country is.In the foreground is the Dead Sea, barely 10 miles from Bethlehem. Across the Dead Sea are the mountains of Moab, the country Ruth came from. The fact that Ruth, who moved to Bethlehem with Naomi, could see her homeland on a clear day is quite surprising to the first-time visitor. Ruth probably moved less than 20 miles when she left her god for Yahweh, God of Israel. Even so, the move was a significant one. A commitment to God can be life-changing, even if life's circumstances change little.

In the immediate foreground is a small village. Although it is not Bethlehem, it is about the size Bethlehem was in Jesus' time. This village helps us imagine what Bethlehem was like. In biblical times, small communities existed around large cities much as suburbs do today. Those communities, including Bethlehem, were known as "daughter cities." In Luke 23:28, Jesus is speaking to women, but there is also a sense in which he may be referring to the cities surrounding Jerusalem that would be brutally ravaged when the Roman army fulfilled his prophecy in AD 70. When a large city was besieged, daughter cities were the first to be destroyed.

As the sun rises at this location, the shadow cast by the Herodion reaches towards Bethlehem. One can almost imagine Herod?s shadow looming over the baby Jesus in his manger. Today the Herodion is an interesting ruin, a symbol of Herod's failure, while Jesus' kingdom is eternal and continues to grow. Thank God that the powerful Herod was stymied by God's sovereignty, and that Jesus lived to complete his work.

Many Christians today recognize that salvation is a gift from God, so they place little emphasis on 'keeping the law' of the Bible. It is true that Jesus did away with 'law keeping' by obeying the law completely and by offering salvation through grace to everyone who trusts in him.

Yet it is also true that Jesus did not suggest that obedience to the Word of God was any less important because of his completed work. In fact, he commanded his followers to 'go and make disciples' teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you? (Matt. 28:19-20).

If we are to be like Jesus'to be his disciples' we must desire to be like him in all ways, which includes obeying him as he obeys his father. Just as obedience was vital to the first-century disciples who went to the pagan regions and proclaimed God's way to live, obedience is vital to us today. If we are to impact our world for God, we must have the same commitment to the lifestyle God demands and Jesus exemplified.

This photograph displays the remains of the first tier of seats in the theater. The elaborate stone benches are fitted into foundations cut into bedrock on this first section.

The seats are carefully shaped with a lip edge for spectators' comfort. On the far end of the row, several seats have been reconstructed.

Seats in the front row, along the orchestra pit, had backs on them (both the backs and the lips have broken off over time) to provide extra comfort for the important people who sat there.

Though covered by wooden panels today, it was originally covered with stone. It is built on arches with drainage channels beneath it.Behind the stage stood scaenae frons a backdrop for the stage, including a row of granite and marble columns and stone panels shown here. This provided the set of scenery for the presentations. The size of the columns, imported from great distance, illustrated the glory of these first-century theaters.

The orchestra "pit" (seating for dignitaries or for the orchestra) was paved with marble, most of which has been plundered over time.

The ruins of the city are seen beyond the stage. The Old Testament tel of Beth Shean, a mound composed of layers of civilization, is in the distance.

This photograph shows the remains of Sepphoris today. This glorious city, on a hilltop in Galilee, is slowly being uncovered by archaeologists. The name Sepphoris is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Zippori, which means "bird." According to the Jewish tradition, this name was used because the town looks like a bird perched on the hill. Nazareth is three miles to the left. The fortress tower, palace, and forum on the top of the hill was built by Herod Antipas centuries later.The theater, which was probably renovated after Jesus' time, had a diameter of approximately 225 feet and seated 4,000 people. The spectators sat on stone seats that were fitted into grooves in the bedrock.

Though it is unlikely Jesus attended this theater, he probably saw it and others in Galilee. His use of the word hypocrite (which means "stage actor") indicates the familiarity of his audience with this cultural institution. The city of Sepphoris probably had 25,000 or more inhabitants while Jesus was growing up in Nazareth, a village of about 200 people.

More than any other person, Herod the Great was responsible for bringing the theater to Israel.

His campaign to make humanistic Hellenism the worldview of his people included building theaters at Caesarea, Jericho, Jerusalem, Samaria, and Sidon. Many other places including Susita, Sepphoris, the Decapolis, and Beth Shean had theaters as well.

Inside the theaters, large crowds gathered to watch the actors. Many plays involved obscene behaviors and language, promoting secular values that contradicted the God-centered values of the Jews. Caesarea and Jerusalem could not prosper at the same time; the values represented by Caesarea and its giant theater opposed the values of Jerusalem and the temple

The splendor and size of Hellenistic theaters were seductive and overwhelming to the Jewish people. The religious community, realizing the pull and temptation of the theater, resisted it strongly.

Certainly Jesus would not have participated in ungodly theater practices, but he did understand the theater's influence on pagan culture. To convey God's truth in a way that secular audiences would understand, he used many theater images in his parables and teachings.

Our world is filled with objects that have special cultural significance. As we look at the Islamic world, we think of the veils worn by many Muslim women. Things such as Coca-Cola and McDonald's have come to symbolize the United States.

The writers of the Text mentioned many "things," each with a particular use and meaning in biblical culture. Unfortunately, many of these objects disappeared over time. Other objects remained, but took on a different meaning in new cultures.

Biblical scholars and archaeologists have learned a great deal about the many things that filled ancient culture. This section shares some of their discoveries, and helps us see each object the same way that it was viewed by the writers of the Text.

Tiberias Area

Easily visible from Jesus' hometown of Capernaum, Tiberias, the regional capital built by Herod Antipas, stood on the western side of the sea. The city was shunned by religious Jews because it was supposedly built over a cemetery, making it ritually impure. We have no record that Jesus ever visited there.

Tiberias was named after the emperor Tiberius and was built on a hill overlooking the sea. The hot mineral springs in the area were used as a health spa by Herod and the people of the city. Little is known of its inhabitants, assumed to be the Herodions who opposed Jesus' ministry (Matt. 22:15-22; Mark 3:6; 12:13-17). Apparently, they were an aristocratic group who supported the Herod dynasty and the Romans who kept it in power.

The Herodions were used by Rome to keep the peace. They plotted Jesus' execution, probably because the many messianic movements of the time threatened their power. It is ironic that Jesus' ministry took place so close to those who bitterly opposed him.

2000-1000 BC - Hittite Empire

920-586 BC - Divided kingdom of Israel

586 BC - Babylonian captivity

500 BC - Jews' return from captivity

325 BC - Alexander the Great's conquest

261 BC - Laodicea founded

220 BC - Antiochus settles Jews from Babylon in Asia

133 BC - Roman Empire begins; lasts until AD 300

27 BC-AD 14 - Augustus

AD 37-41 - Caligula (enforced emperor worship)

AD 48-49 - Paul's third missionary journey (Ephesus)

AD 60 - Earthquake damages Laodicea, Hierapolis, Colosse

AD 68-78 - John is in Asia

AD 81-96 - Domitian/ emperor worship in Ephesus

AD 990-100 - The book of Revelation written between these dates

AD 98-117 - John's death

AD 325 - Christianity becomes state religion

AD 363 - A significant church council held in Laodicea

There is an abundant amount of evidence both in Scripture and in the religious practices of the Jews that God carefully planned the timing of Jesus' death and resurrection. The following are just a few examples of God's planning:

Prophecies

Prophecies given hundreds of years before Jesus was even born were precisely fulfilled when Jesus died.

Passover Lamb

The high priest's practice of killing the Passover Lamb had been in force for hundreds, perhaps a thousand years.On Friday of the year Jesus died, the Jews celebrated Passover and killed a lamb for the temple sacrifice. Jesus, the Lamb of God, died at that same time in order to take our sins upon himself.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread

The year that Jesus died, Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath, was also the day on which the Jews celebrated the Feast of Unleavened Bread. This feast reminded the Jews of the bread that God provided for the Israelites when they left Egypt. Consider the significant parallels between this feast and Jesus' death:

First, wheat seeds must die in order to bring forth crop. Similarly, Jesus had to die and be buried in order to accomplish his ministry and be raised to a new life. Second, unleavened bread was made without yeast, because yeast represented sin (1 Cor. 5:7-8). In the same way, Jesus, the Lamb of God, was sinless.

Feast of the Firstfruits

On the Sunday following Jesus death, the Israelites celebrated the Feast of Firstfruits, which in this case celebrated the beginning of the barley harvest.

The Israelites returned to God the "first part" of everything they had been given to indicate their thankfulness for the harvest, their acknowledgement that God had given them the gifts, and their faith that God would continue to provide (Num. 15:17-21; Deut. 26:1-11). They gave the best part of what they received to God (Ex. 23:19).

Also, on that day, Jesus came to life as God's firstfruits, the guarantee that the rest would follow, including the resurrection from the dead (1 Cor. 15:20-23).

Living in Capernaum

During his ministry, Jesus chose to live in Capernaum, a small town near the Sea of Galilee.

During his ministry, Jesus chose to live in Capernaum, a small town near the Sea of Galilee. Capernaum served as a military post for the Romans, and it stood along the busy international trade route called the Via Maris (Way of the Sea).

The prophet Isaiah predicted that the Messiah would live by "the way to the sea," (Isa. 9:1) and Jesus fulfilled this prophecy by living in Capernaum (Matt. 4:13%u201416). People from around the world could hear Jesus' message as they traveled on the Via Maris.

Many people living in Capernaum were tektons, people who worked with stones. Once a volcanic lake, the Sea of Galilee left large deposits of volcanic rock, or basalt, in the surrounding area. Jesus was probably a tekton by trade, and his hometown of Capernaum was known for their production of basalt food processing implements.

Capernaum also served as a convenient base for Jesus' ministry around the Sea of Galilee. The area was home to a variety of people, from religious zealots to pagans, and from devout to secular Jews. Jesus brought his life-changing message to them all.

 

The Rabbi's Message

Jesus' message was simple: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near" (Matt. 4:17).

Jesus' message was simple: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near" (Matt. 4:17).

Through his teachings, Jesus revealed what the kingdom of heaven looked like. This kingdom did not abolish the law, but built upon it. Jesus challenged his followers to go beyond the letter of the law. In the new order, people were called to become servants, bringing God's love and grace to a hurting world.

Jesus also revealed that God's kingdom was at war. Though Jesus' death would assure the final victory, he knew that his followers would need to battle evil until his return. But he also knew that, even in the midst of evil, God's kingdom would grow.

Jesus once told his disciples that the kingdom of God was like yeast working its way into the bread. As it penetrated the hearts of Jesus' followers, it would spread throughout the whole world.

But many of Jesus' listeners doubted his message. They expected an earthly kingdom. And they couldn?t believe that one rabbi would be greater than the powerful kingdom of Rome. Other people believed, and became the first members of a kingdom that now spans the globe.

 

The Rabbi's Disciples

Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus had disciples called talmidim. The disciples' deepest desire was to follow their rabbi so closely that they would start to think and act like him.

Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus had disciples called talmidim, devout followers who were probably in their mid-teens.

Gifted students approached a rabbi and asked, "May I follow you?" in effect, saying, "Do I have what it takes to be like you?" The rabbi either accepted the student as a talmid or sent him away to pursue a trade. Jesus broke this pattern when he chose his own talmidim. As he asked his disciples to follow him, they knew without a doubt that their rabbi believed in them.

A talmid followed the rabbi everywhere, often without knowing or asking where he was going. He rarely left his rabbi's side for fear that he would miss a teachable moment. And he watched the rabbi's every move, noting how he acted and thought about a variety of situations.

Talmidim trusted their rabbi completely. They worked passionately to incorporate the rabbi's actions and words into their lives. The disciples' deepest desire was to follow their rabbi so closely that they would start to think and act like him.

Jesus' twelve disciples ultimately succeeded in becoming like their rabbi: Their missionary efforts changed the world, and most of them gave their lives in the process.

 

Radical Discipleship

On one stormy night, Jesus walked on the water. And Peter, wanting to be like his Rabbi, followed him!

On one stormy evening, Jesus and his disciples were on the Sea of Galilee. No doubt the disciples were terrified: People of Jesus' day feared the sea and believed it was a symbol of the abyss. Most people, including fishermen, didn't even know how to swim.

But on that stormy night, Jesus walked onto the water%u2014and Peter followed him! He so strongly desired to be like his rabbi that he risked drowning and stepped onto the waves. As he noticed the storm, though, Peter began to doubt himself. While he trusted the rabbi, he forgot how much the rabbi trusted him, and he began to sink.

Peter reached another point of doubt during the night when Jesus was arrested and imprisoned by Roman guards. During the pain and confusion of that night, Peter denied that he had ever known Jesus. For any other rabbi, Peter's denial would have ended his position as a talmid.

But Jesus was a special rabbi.

After his resurrection, Jesus reinstated Peter, telling him to "feed my sheep." He encouraged Peter to take the role of shepherd, a role that Jesus had filled himself. And by choosing those words, he gave Peter a wonderful promise: "Even though you've stumbled, you can still be like me."

 

Called to Be a Talmid

As Christians look at Jesus' talmidim, we are challenged to radical discipleship%u2014following the Rabbi regardless of the cost.

Today, most of Jesus' followers lack the passion of the talmidim. We think of discipleship as learning theological knowledge rather than devoting our lives to the Rabbi.

All too often, God's people miss opportunities to experience God's power and walk on water. We are just too busy with our own schedules and goals. Or we are too afraid to leave our security behind.

But as we look at Jesus' talmidim, we are challenged to radical discipleship%u2014 following the Rabbi wherever he leads, no matter how scared we may feel, and no matter what he asks us to leave behind.

Jesus truly believes his disciples can become like him, even when we feel tired, fallen, or incapable. The first twelve disciples were ordinary people, but with God's power, they transformed the world.

Our world still needs transformation. It is filled with superficiality and selfishness, and people yearn for something real. They aren't impressed by hypocrites, but rather take notice when someone puts everything on the line for their God.

If Christians are willing to demonstrate radical discipleship, the people around us may just want to meet our Rabbi for themselves.

How about you: Where is God asking you to walk on water? Will you follow your Rabbi as he steps out of the boat?

Tombs varied greatly in appearance. The poor probably had nothing more than small underground chambers. Wealthier people, however, created extensive tombs cut into solid rock near the ground.

Across the entrance, a large, flat, round tombstone (often weighing more than two tons) rolled in a trench and covered the opening but allowed entrance for later care of the bones. It was sealed so that it could be determined whether it had been opened.

After the tomb was sealed and the flesh was allowed to decay, the second inner chamber provided a place for the burial itself, where the bones would later be collected into a box, called an ossuary. Many tombs had a number of shelves, or niches, cut into the rock.

According to the Law, tombs had to be outside town; otherwise someone inside the town might touch the tomb and become ceremonially unclean.

What Was Jesus' Tomb Really Like?
Jesus' tomb belonged to a rich Jewish man named Joseph of Arimathea (Matt. 27:57-60), who was a prominent member of the Jewish council.

The tomb in which Jesus was buried had never been used before. According to Jewish law held by the Pharisees, only people in an immediate family could be buried in the same tomb, so it's likely that no one in the family of Arimathea would ever use it again. Thus Joseph made a big sacrifice when he allowed Jesus to be buried in his brand-new tomb.

Its LocationThe Via Maris entered the Great Rift Valley from the east and continued south to the Sea of Galilee. It then turned southwest into the Valley of Jezreel and cut through the ridge of Mount Carmel to reach the coastal plain. After arriving at the coastal plain, the road continued along the coast towards Egypt.

Why It Was VitalThe rugged mountain ranges cutting through the middle of Israel made it incredibly difficult to travel east to west and transport goods. Civilizations such as Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria however, depended on trade to exchange and acquire necessary goods. Whoever controlled the road between these empires dominated international trade and had a tremendous influence on other cultures.

Strategic CitiesThree cities along the Via Maris were especially important because they stood at strategic points. Hazor guarded a narrow section of the road in the Rift Valley. Gezer stood where the road jogged inland to avoid swampy areas and also connected the Via Maris to an east-west road that led to Jericho. And Megiddo"the most important city of the ancient world" guarded the crucial mountain pass through Mount Carmel.

Why Israel Lost OutBecause they were so afraid of the Philistines and the Canaanites, the Israelites stayed mainly in the mountains or in the Shephelah (the foothills between the mountains and the coastal plain). The Israelites rarely controlled the key cities along the Via Maris, so they could not exert the degree of influence upon the world that God intended them to have.

In the Middle East, floods in the desert are a frequent occurrence because of the topography of the land. The mountains to the north of the Negev and to the west of the Judea Wilderness get significant amounts of rainfall during the short rainy season. The soil of the mountains cannot absorb this amount of water, so it runs off into the arid wilderness.This photograph shows the effects of floods in the desert. Though the walls of this wadi are especially steep, the tracks made by rushing water are clearly seen. The wilderness has many of these dry riverbeds, which become larger as they get nearer the Dead Sea.

Floodwaters leave behind sand and gravel. Jesus' story of the wise man who built his house on the rock and the foolish man who built his house on the sand (Matt. 7:24-27) is probably based on this phenomenon.

According to the parable, a man built his house on the sand, in a flood zone. The rains fell, the floods came, and the house was destroyed. Another man build on the rock, out of the flood area, and the rains, though severe, had no impact on his house. Imagine someone building in the wadi pictured here. Jesus' audience must have chuckled at this story.

When a flood does occur in the desert, it is amazing to behold. The sky is clear, the sun is shining, and suddenly a wall of water roars through the narrow canyon. Anyone unfortunate enough to be in the wadi is washed away, an all-too-frequent occurrence for shepherds and sheep in this region.

The flocks of contemporary shepherds contain both sheep and goats. Although both were called "small cattle" in Hebrew, clear differences distinguish them. For instance, goats are generally dark and aggressive, while sheep are usually lighter colored, docile, and passive. Sheep eat grass to an even height, while goats graze much closer to the ground and also eat leaves, bark, and fruit.

Occasionally, shepherds separate the sheep and goats, possibly to protect young trees or other crops growing nearby. This difficult task and the goats? bad reputation are expressed in the New Testament. Interestingly, Jesus used the shepherds' process of separating sheep from goats to describe judgment day (Matt. 25:32-33).

The wilderness is an extremely mountainous country with hidden canyons (wadis) hundreds of feet deep. Hikers are aware of the danger of following trails along these steep slopes. Blinded by the bright sun, they could suddenly find themselves at the rim of a deep canyon with its edge obscured in shadows.

Shepherds in Israel often pastured sheep along these steep canyons. Sometimes the trails would lead to the edge of a cliff where the only escape was to retreat. Therefore, an important aspect of protecting the flock involved knowing when the paths ahead followed along the canyon edge.

Such an experience is detailed in Psalm 23:4 where it reads: "Even though I walk through the darkest valley or the darkest shadow" (NIV: "through the valley of the shadow of death"). This passage reflects the shepherd's awareness of steep canyons and difficult paths as he leads his flock to green pastures and quiet water.

 

The availability of water was the most important survival factor in the desert. Several biblical images about searching for water came from the Israelites' experiences of wilderness wandering. One such example is conveyed in Psalm 63:1, where the need for God is compared to a thirst like that of someone lost in the desert.

Winter rains in the north and west of the Negev were heavy. Because the soil of the mountains could not absorb all the water, it ran off into the arid wilderness. The enormous runoff created deep canyons, called wadis.

Floods in the desert occurred unexpectedly. The sky would be clear, the sun shining, and suddenly a wall of water roared through the narrow canyon. Anyone unfortunate enough to be in the wadi was washed away. The raging waters left behind refreshing pools, and it was the task of the shepherd to determine if they were the safe and "quiet waters" referred to by the psalmist (Ps. 23:2).

A significant part of the shepherd's life was finding water for the sheep. Sheep lacked discernment and would sometimes choose dangerous water. That is why the shepherd had to lead the sheep. The good shepherd knew the safe and dangerous times to enter a wadi, and he knew where to find quiet pools. Knowledge of both was essential to ensure the flock's survival.

In settled conditions, or in places where many shepherds gathered, a well was often dug to water the flocks. The shepherds' responsibilities thus increased to include drawing water for the flock. Sometimes sharing a well created conflict among shepherds. Conflict over scarce resources forced Abraham and Lot to separate (Gen. 13:5-11).

In the wilderness, water always comes from rock. The miracle was that it came when and where the Israelites needed it. Even today there are small oases in the desert where fresh, life-giving water bubbles up from solid rock. The Israelites learned to know God as living water